Particle Transport Research Articles

Use of metal-tagged environmentally representative micro- and nanoplastic particles to investigate transport and retention through porous media using single particle ICP-MS

Microplastics and nanoplastics (collectively, MNPs) are increasingly entering soils, with potential adverse impacts to agriculture and groundwater. Environmental detection, characterization, and quantification of MNPs is difficult and subject to artifacts, often requiring labor-intensive separation from environmental matrices. These analytical challenges make it difficult to conduct experiments investigating specific MNP characteristics influencing their transport and fate, particularly when examining multiple plastic types at low concentrations. By synthesizing a suite of metal-tagged polymers, which are cryomilled to create polydisperse fragmented particle suspensions, single particle ICP-MS (spICP-MS) can be used to quantify MNP particle size and concentration in controlled fate and transport studies. Use of unique metal-polymer pairs enables accurate, simultaneous analysis of multiple MNP types which can be used to track total particle transport and retention within a variety of environmental matrices. This was demonstrated using saturated sand column transport experiments to quantify the movement of two plastics having different properties: tin-tagged polystyrene (Sn-PS) and tantalum-tagged polyvinylpyrrolidone (Ta-PVP). The behavior of these polydisperse, fragmented MNPs was compared to that of fluorescent, carboxylated monodisperse PS spherical microspheres (Fl-PS). Mobility of all MNP types increased with decreasing particle size, and hydrophilic Ta-PVP particles migrated more effectively than the hydrophobic Sn-PS particles. Furthermore, the addition of humic acid (HA) to the carrier solution increased the colloidal stability of both metal-tagged MNP suspensions, resulting in much greater elution from the column than in HA-free deionized water or moderately- hard water (ionic strength = 5mM). This combination of particle synthesis and spICP-MS analysis provides insights into the transport of MNP having physical properties that are representative of environmental MNPs and opens up a broad range of applications for study of MNP environmental fate and transport.

Effects of plasma nonuniformity on toroidal Alfvén eigenmode nonlinear decay

The parametric decay of toroidal Alfvén eigenmode (TAE) in nonuniform plasmas is investigated using nonlinear gyrokinetic equation. It is found that, the plasma nonuniformity not only significantly enhances the nonlinear coupling cross-section, but also qualitatively modifies the decay process. Specifically, the condition for spontaneous decay becomes the toroidal mode number of the sideband TAE being higher than that of the pump TAE, instead of the frequency of the sideband TAE being lower than the pump TAE in uniform plasmas. The consequences on TAE saturation and energetic particle transport are also discussed.

Performance evaluation and validation of OpenMC code for criticality analysis of an MTR-type research reactor

This paper assesses the performance of OpenMC, an open-source Monte Carlo code for particle transport, through criticality analysis of an MTR-type research reactor. The evaluation involves validation against experimental data from the NUR research reactor's first fresh fuel core and a code-to-code comparison with MCNP5, using a consistent methodology ensuring identical input conditions. Key parameters, including excess reactivity, control rod worths, shutdown margin, critical configurations, kinetics parameters, neutron flux, power distributions, and peaking factors, were examined. Results indicate good agreement between OpenMC simulations, experimental data, and MCNP5 results, with marginal differences well within acceptable ranges. Discrepancies with experimental data are below 5 %, considering measurement accuracy, while code-to-code comparisons reveal relative differences below 1 % in most cases. This study supports OpenMC's reliability for MTR reactor criticality analysis, affirming the validity of the developed NUR reactor model for future applications and highlighting the code's credibility and applicability in the nuclear reactor simulations.

CAD and constructive solid geometry modeling of the Molten Salt Reactor Experiment with OpenMC

In this study, we present a detailed comparison of two independently developed models of the Molten Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) for Monte Carlo particle transport simulations: the constructive solid geometry (CSG) model that was developed in support of the MSRE benchmark in the International Handbook of Evaluated Reactor Physics Benchmark Experiments, and a CAD model that was developed by Copenhagen Atomics. The original Serpent reference CSG model was first converted to OpenMC’s input format so that it could be systematically compared to the CAD model, which was already available as an OpenMC model, using the same Monte Carlo code. Results from simulations using the Serpent and OpenMC CSG models showed that keff agreed within 10 pcm while the flux distribution in space and energy generally agreed within 0.1%. Larger differences were observed between the OpenMC CAD and CSG models; notably, the keff computed for the CAD model was 1.00872, which is more than 1% lower than the value for the CSG model and much closer to experiment. Several areas of the reactor that were modeled differently in the CSG and CAD models were discussed and, in several cases, their impact on keff was quantified. Lastly, we compared the computational performance and memory usage between the CAD and CSG models. Simulation of the CSG model was found to be 1.4–2.3× faster than simulation of the CAD model based on the Embree ray tracer while using 4× less memory, highlighting the need for continued improvements in the CAD-based particle transport ecosystem. Finally, major performance degradation was observed for CAD-based simulations when using the MOAB ray tracer.

Transport of energetic particles in turbulent space plasmas: pitch-angle scattering, telegraph, and diffusion equations

Introduction: In this article, we revisit the pitch-angle scattering equation describing the propagation of energetic particles through magnetized plasma. In this case, solar energetic particles and cosmic rays interact with magnetohydrodynamic turbulence and experience stochastic changes in the pitch-angle. Since this happens over an extended period of time, a pitch-angle isotropization process occurs, leading to parallel spatial diffusion. This process is described well by the pitch-angle scattering equation. However, the latter equation is difficult to solve analytically even when considering special cases for the scattering coefficient.Methods: In the past, a so-called subspace approximation was proposed, which has important applications in the theory of perpendicular diffusion. Alternatively, an approach based on the telegraph equation (also known as telegrapher’s equation) has been developed. We show that two-dimensional subspace approximation and the description based on the telegraph equation are equivalent. However, it is also shown that the obtained distribution functions contain artifacts and inaccuracies that cannot be found in the numerical solution to the problem. Therefore, an N-dimensional subspace approximation is proposed corresponding to a semi-analytical/semi-numerical approach. This is a useful alternative compared to standard numerical solvers.Results and Discussion: Depending on the application, the N-dimensional subspace approximation can be orders of magnitude faster. Furthermore, the method can easily be modified so that it can be used for any pitch-angle scattering equation.

Drifting along: using diatoms to track the contribution of microbial mats to particulate organic matter transport in a glacial meltwater stream in the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica

Flow pulses mobilize particulate organic matter (POM) in streams from the surrounding landscape and streambed. This POM serves as a source of energy and nutrients, as well as a means for organismal dispersal, to downstream communities. In the barren terrestrial landscape of the McMurdo Dry Valleys (MDV) of Antarctica, benthic microbial mats occupying different in-stream habitat types are the dominant POM source in the many glacier-fed streams. Many of these streams experience daily flow peaks that mobilize POM, and diatoms recovered from underlying stream sediments suggest that mat-derived diatoms in the POM are retained there through hyporheic exchange. Yet, ‘how much’ and ‘when’ different in-stream habitat types contribute to POM diatom assemblages is unknown. To quantify the contribution of different in-stream habitat types to POM diatom assemblages, we collected time-integrated POM samples over four diel experiments, which spanned a gradient of flow conditions over three summers. Diatoms from POM samples were identified, quantified, and compared with dominant habitat types (i.e., benthic ‘orange’ mats, marginal ‘black’ mats, and bare sediments). Like bulk POM, diatom cell concentrations followed a clockwise hysteresis pattern with stream discharge over the daily flow cycles, indicating supply limitation. Diatom community analyses showed that different habitat types harbor distinct diatom communities, and mixing models revealed that a substantial proportion of POM diatoms originated from bare sediments during baseflow conditions. Meanwhile, orange and black mats contribute diatoms to POM primarily during daily flow peaks when both cell concentrations and discharge are highest, making mats the most important contributors to POM diatom assemblages at high flows. These observations may help explain the presence of mat-derived diatoms in hyporheic sediments. Our results thus indicate a varying importance of different in-stream habitats to POM generation and export on daily to seasonal timescales, with implications for biogeochemical cycling and the local diatom metacommunity.

The effect of divertor particle sources on scrape-off-layer turbulence

Tokamak edge turbulence is crucial for the cross-field transport of particles and energy away from the separatrix. A better understanding of what affects the turbulence helps to control the heat flux to the divertor targets and the wall. One potentially important factor is the ion particle source in the divertor, as the neutral pathways and the ionisation source distributions are different depending on the divertor geometry, e.g. vertical- and horizontal-target configurations. Numerically, how to represent the sources and mimic the effects on the SOL in the simulations is still an open question. In this paper, we use a 3D turbulence code STORM, based on drift-reduced Braginskii equations, to study the effects of the divertor particle source distribution on turbulence in a simplified 3D slab geometry. The results show that it requires a large amount of divertor particle source to be peaked near the separatrix to alter the heat flux deposited on the target in attached conditions. This large non-uniform particle source can locally enhance the turbulence in the divertor volume, which redistributes the energy flux to the target and reduces the maximum amplitude. Meanwhile, the plasma profiles evaluated at the outboard midplane, such as the amplitudes and fluctuations of the density and temperature, are marginally changed. Another consequence of our results is that the prediction of the temperature difference between the outboard midplane and the target would be underestimated, if the calculation only considers the conductive heat flux and ignores this enhanced cross-field transport in the divertor.

Simultaneous measurements for fast neutron flux and tritium production rate using pulse shape discrimination and single crystal CVD diamond detector

This paper presents the development of a simultaneous measurement method for fast neutron energy spectra and tritium production rates within mixed radiation fields using a single crystal chemical vapour deposition diamond detector combined with a lithium fluoride (LiF) foil. The method involves the separation of pulses with rectangular shapes and the determination of the depth position within the single crystal diamond (SCD) struck by fast neutrons or nuclear reaction products including recoil tritons from the LiF foil based on pulse width, extracting pulse events occurred at the specific bulk region and the surface region of the SCD. Subsequently, unfolding techniques were employed to analyse the energy deposition spectrum of pulses at the specific bulk region which are induced only by fast neutrons, allowing the deduction of the fast neutron energy spectrum. To evaluate the tritium production rate, the energy deposition spectrum of pulses from events occurring at the SCD surface facing the LiF foil was analysed. By estimating the energy deposition spectrum solely induced by fast neutrons striking the SCD surface and subtracting it from the energy deposition spectrum of events at the SCD surface, the contribution of energetic ions, such as recoil tritons generated by the 6Li(n,α)3H reaction in the LiF foil, was determined. The fast neutron flux and tritium production rate obtained through this study were consistent with particle transport calculations, demonstrating the successful development of a method suitable for performance testing of fusion reactor blankets.

Comparison of transport coefficients before and after density pump-out induced by resonant magnetic perturbation using a BOUT++ six-field model on the EAST tokamak

Many experiments have demonstrated that resonant magnetic perturbation (RMP) can affect the turbulent transport at the edge of the tokamak. Through the Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) density modulation experiment, the particle transport coefficients were calculated using the experimental data, and the result shows that the particle transport coefficients increase with RMP. In this study, the six-field two-fluid model in BOUT++ is used to simulate the transport before and after density pump-out induced by RMP, respectively referred as the case without RMP and the case with RMP. In the linear simulations, the instabilities generally decreases for cases with RMP. In the nonlinear simulation, ELM only appears in the case without RMP. Additionally, the particle transport coefficient was analyzed, and the result shows that the particle transport coefficient becomes larger for the case with RMP, which is consistent with the experimental conclusion. Moreover, its magnitude is comparable to the results calculated from experimental data.

A Numerical Study on the Influence of Riparian Vegetation Patch on the Transportation of Suspended Sediment in a U-Bend Channel Flow

Bend sections are ubiquitous in natural sandy river systems. This study employs Computational Fluid Dynamics–Discrete Phase Model (CFD-DPM) methodology to analyze particle transport dynamics in U-bend channel flows, focusing on the distinctions between partially vegetated (Case No.1) and non-vegetated (Case No.2) scenarios. The research aims to unravel the intricate relationships among bending channel-induced secondary flow, vegetation blockage, and particle aggregation, employing both quantitative and qualitative approaches. (I) The key findings reveal that vegetation near the inner walls of curved channels markedly diminishes the intensity of secondary circulation. This reduction in circulation intensity is observed not only within vegetated areas but also extends to adjacent non-vegetated zones. Additionally, the study identifies a close correlation between vertical vortices and particle distribution near the channel bed. While particle distribution generally aligns with the vortices’ margin, dynamic patch-scale eddies near vegetation patches induce deviations, creating wave-like patterns in particle distribution. (II) The application of the Probability Density Function (PDF) provides insights into the radius-wise particle distribution. In non-vegetated channels, particle distribution is primarily influenced by secondary flow and boundary layers. In contrast, the presence of vegetation leads to a complex mixing layer, altering the particle distribution pattern and maximizing PDF values in non-vegetated free flow subzones. (III) Furthermore, the research quantifies spatial–temporal sediment heterogeneity through PDF variance. The findings demonstrate that variance in non-vegetated channels increases towards the outer wall in bending regions. Vegetation-induced turbulence causes higher variance, particularly in the mixing layer subzone, underscoring the significance of eddy size in sediment redistribution. (IV) The study of vertical concentration profiles in vegetated U-bend channels offers additional insights, while secondary flow in non-vegetated channels facilitates upward sediment transport and vegetation presence, although increasing the Turbulent Kinetic Energy (TKE), restricts channel space, and impedes secondary flow, thereby reducing vertical particle suspension. Sediment concentrations are found to be higher in the lower layers of vegetated bends, contrary to the pattern in non-vegetated bends. These findings highlight the complex interplay between vegetation, secondary flow, and sediment transport, illustrating the reduced effectiveness of secondary flow in promoting vertical particle transportation in bending channels due to the vegetation obstruction.

Role of gas composition in weakened nonlinear standing wave excitation and improved plasma radial uniformity in very-high-frequency asymmetric capacitive Ar/CF4 discharges

The higher harmonics generated by nonlinear sheath motion would enhance the standing wave effect, and thus lead to center-peaked plasma density profile in very-high-frequency (VHF) capacitive discharges. In this work, a nonlinear transmission line (NTL) model introduced in Zhou et al (2021 Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 30 125017) has been extended, with radial transport of various particles and nonlinear sheath motion into account, to investigate the effects of CF4 fraction α on the nonlinear standing wave excitation and plasma radial uniformity in VHF (60 MHz) capacitively coupled Ar/CF4 plasmas at 3 Pa. The results indicate that for pure Ar discharges (i.e. α= 0%), the nonlinearly excited harmonics with short wavelength significantly enhance the electron power absorption at the radial center, resulting in a pronounced central-high plasma density profile. As α increases, the high-order harmonics are gradually damped due to the increase of resistance, as well as the longer wavelength caused by thicker sheath thickness. Thus, the radial profile of the electron absorbed power density shifts from center-peak to edge-high. Besides, at the radial center, the electron density and Ar+ ion density decrease with α , CF3 + ion density shows an increasing trend, while F− ion density initially rises and then decreases. Moreover, the density profiles of all the species become more uniform at higher CF4 fraction, due to the suppressed nonlinear standing wave excitation and the longer wavelength of the nonlinear harmonics.

Solute flow and particle transport in aquatic ecosystems: A review on the effect of emergent and rigid vegetation

In-channel vegetation is ubiquitous in aquatic environments and plays a critical role in the fate and transport of solutes and particles in aquatic ecosystems. Recent studies have advanced our understanding of the role of vegetation in solute flow and particle transport in aquatic ecosystems. This review summarizes these papers and discusses the impacts of emergent and rigid vegetation on the surface flow, the advection and dispersion of solutes, suspended load transport, bedload transport, and hyporheic exchange. The two competing effects of emergent vegetation on the above transport processes are discussed. On the one hand, emergent vegetation reduces mean flow velocity at the same surface slope, which reduces mass transport. On the other hand, at the same mean flow velocity, vegetation generates turbulence, which enhances mass transport. Mechanistic understanding of these two competing effects and predictive equations derived from laboratory experiments are discussed. Predictive equations for the mean flow velocity and turbulent kinetic energy inside an emergent vegetation canopy are derived based on force and energy balance. The impacts of emergent vegetation on the advection-dispersion process, the suspended load and bedload transport, and the hyporheic exchange are summarized. The impacts of other vegetation-related factors, such as vegetation morphology, submergence, and flexibility, are briefly discussed. The role of vegetation in transporting other particles, such as micro- and macro-plastics, is also briefly discussed. Finally, suggestions for future research directions are proposed to advance the understanding of the dynamic interplays among natural vegetation, flow dynamics, and sedimentary processes.

Comparison of residual dose rates from MARS and DORIAN simulations with experimental data from the SINBAD database

This benchmarking study aims to compare residual dose rate predictions from the MARS and DORIAN codes with experimental measurements taken from samples irradiated at CERN's CERF facility. The research evaluates the residual dose rates of these samples over varied cooling intervals. Additionally, it delves into the influence of parameter choices, such as specific physics processes and energy thresholds, on the production and transport of particles and their effects on simulation outcomes. While both MARS and DORIAN largely align with experimental findings, discrepancies were observed in the copper sample. This prompted an in-depth examination of the elevated dose rates from MARS.

Extraction of flow features around a bridge pier with an evolving scour hole using Lagrangian coherent structures

Local scouring around a bridge pier poses a severe threat to the safety of the bridge. A better understanding of flow features around the bridge piers is necessary for accurate prediction of the scour depth. The ridges of the finite-time Lyapunov exponent, called Lagrangian coherent structures (LCSs), were used to extract the flow features around a circular bridge pier with an evolving scour hole. The velocity field required for the LCSs computation was obtained using a three-dimensional Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes simulation. The simulation results were validated with the published experimental and numerical findings. The computed LCS stretching field extracted all the flow features around the bridge pier that were previously reported in the literature. In addition, the LCSs extracted the region of flow acceleration on both sides of the pier. The forward LCSs upstream of the pier extracted a particle trapping region, providing insight into the volume of fluid converting into the downflow. They extracted anchor-like structures inside the scour hole upstream of the pier. The analysis of velocity variations along the width and depth of the flow domain revealed that a change in the velocity profile is triggering the formation of LCS. The behavior of non-inertial particles released and integrated into the flow field revealed the significance of LCSs in particle transport. Using the LCS method, the study extracted the flow features that were difficult to extract with traditional flow visualization methods.

Particle transport along the circular trajectory of a semi-infinite Bessel acoustic beam

We explored the propagation of semi-infinite accelerating Bessel beams along circular trajectories beyond the paraxial approximation. Until now, the complex nature of these beams has posed a challenge for the development of construction methods, resulting in primarily theoretical research within the field of acoustics. In this study, we successfully achieved experimental realization of these beams in the acoustic domain using our previously proposed acoustic Fourier transform system, which involves phase modulation through a holographic lens and Fourier transformation through a cylindrical focusing reflector. Our results demonstrate that these beams exhibit accelerated propagation along circular trajectories. Moreover, we experimentally generated and directly observed these highly curved beams during the transportation of micro-particles, where they undergo substantial bending at large angles.

Height-modulating horizontal transport of dust particles in a dusty plasma ratchet

Dust particles are often electrostatically trapped and levitated within the non-electroneutral region of a sheath. The fascinating transport phenomena of dust particles strongly depend on the plasma parameters surrounding them within the sheath, whereas, that are quite difficult to obtain, leading to an unclear understanding of particle transport mechanisms. Here, we demonstrate a tunable horizontal transport of micron-sized dust particles by precisely manipulating their vertically suspended heights in an asymmetric ratchet sheath by designing dusty plasma ratchet. A collection of dust particles serves as micro-probes to detect the height-dependent transport properties and the feature of the sheath. Two methods are employed to lift or reduce the suspended heights of dust particles while maintaining the sheath unchanged. As the suspended heights of dust particles vary, their directional transport changes accordingly, including a flow reversal. A two-dimensional model of the ratchet sheath depicts the nonlinear distributions of plasma parameters and reveals that these unexpected transport phenomena can be attributed to the dependence of the electric ratchet potential and the resulting non-equilibrium net ion drag force on the suspended heights of dust particles. Our combined experimental and theoretical study provides insights into the fundamental transport properties of dust particles in an asymmetrical sheath.

Estimation of nuclear properties in a deuteron–lithium target using JENDL/DEU-2020 for IFMIF and similar irradiation facilities

An accelerator-based neutron source powered by deuteron–Li (d–Li) reactions is among the most promising neutron sources for fusion materials irradiation facilities, such as IFMIF, IFMIF-DONES, and A-FNS. The yield estimation of neutrons and other particles is critical to the design of these facilities. Presently, the McDelicious code is employed for the aforementioned yield estimations, although it is not an open code. Recently, a deuteron-induced reaction library, JENDL/DEU-2020, was released by the Japan Atomic Energy Agency. Thus, employing benchmark tests, such as the Particle and Heavy Ion Transport code System (PHITS) + JENDL/DEU-2020, Monte Carlo N-Particle + JENDL/DEU-2020, and McDelicious, we confirm that PHITS (or Monte Carlo N-Particle (MCNP)) + JENDL/DEU-2020 effectively reproduces the experimental data and McDelicious results. We apply PHITS + JENDL/DEU-2020 to the yield estimations of the neutron, gamma, and charged particles in a Li target and to the yield estimation of the charged particles in the target backplate for A-FNS. The estimated production rates of tritium and 7Be during the continuous operation using a deuteron beam of 40 MeV and 125 mA are 1.4 × 1016 atoms/s (2.3 g/FPY) and 5.9 × 1014 atoms/s (0.21 g/FPY), respectively, and the estimated production rates of He and H in the target backplate for A-FNS are 3.2 × 102 and 1.8 × 103 appm/FPY, respectively.

Material attractiveness of irradiated fuel salts from the Seaborg Compact Molten Salt Reactor

Over the years, numerous evaluations of material attractiveness have been performed for conventional light water reactors to better understand the nature of the spent fuel material and its desirability for misuse at different points in the nuclear fuel cycle. However, availability of such assessments for newer, Generation IV reactors such as Molten Salt Reactors is rather limited. In the present study we address the gap in knowledge of material attractiveness for molten salt reactor systems and describe the nature of irradiated fuel salts which the nuclear safeguards community might be faced with in the near future as more and more such reactors enter commission and operation. Within the scope of the paper, we use a large database of simulated irradiated fuel salt isotopics (and other derived quantities such as gamma activity, decay heat, and neutron emission rates) developed specifically for a molten salt reactor concept in order to shed some light on possible weapons usability of uranium and plutonium present in the irradiated fuel salts. This has been achieved by proposing a new attractiveness metric that is better suited for quantifying attractiveness of irradiated salts from a model molten salt concept. The said metric has been computed using a database that has been created by simulating the irradiation of molten fuel salt in a concept core over a wide range of operational parameters (burnup, initial enrichment, and cooling time) using the Monte-Carlo particle transport code, Serpent. With the help of this attractiveness metric, the findings from this study have shown that in relative terms, molten salt spent fuel is more attractive than spent fuel produced by a conventional light water reactor. The findings also underscore the need for strengthened safeguards measures for such spent fuel. These results are expected to be useful in the future for regulatory authorities as well as for nuclear safeguards inspectors for designing a functional safeguards verification routine for irradiated fuel of such unique nature.

Development of multilevel mesh adaptivity for global variance reduction in Monte Carlo code cosRMC

The mesh-based weight window method is a widely used global variance reduction technique for Monte Carlo particle transport calculation. In order to meet the fine voxel division required for high-quality weight window distribution, the uniform structured mesh division will lead to large memory footprint pressure. This work focused on the research of the multilevel adaptive mesh algorithm, using a recursive algorithm to adjust the voxel resolution adaptively according to the material of geometry. Then the adaptive mesh algorithm was applied to the weight window generator based on the response matrix method by establishing the neighbor relationship of adaptive mesh. And an optimization method for memory allocation of the response matrix solver was proposed, effectively reducing the memory footprint of the response matrix solver in parallel computing. In the calculation of the CFETR model, the calculation efficiency under the weight window based on adaptive mesh was increased by 53.3 % compared with the weight window based on uniform mesh, and the proportion of voxels with a statistical error less than 10 % reached 93.33 %, which verified the effectiveness of the multilevel adaptive mesh algorithm.

Pulse Signal Generator for Simulated Gamma-ray Spectrometer Detection

This paper introduces an integrated nuclear pulse generator aimed at simulating authentic radiation detection signals, allowing for the convenient calibration and testing of nuclear instruments without the need for radioactive sources. An innovative method is adopted, generating energy spectrum distributions via Monte Carlo simulation and deriving nuclear pulse waveforms using difference equations. This approach enables real-time computation of particle transport processes on a hardware platform, and generates pulse sequences that closely resemble the statistical characteristics of actual nuclear events. Compared to traditional nuclear signal generators, this new type of generator significantly enhances the flexibility and real-time capabilities of the equipment, as it no longer relies on pre-stored empirical data or simulation software to generate energy spectrum data. As a case for gamma-ray spectrometer detection, the signal waveforms and energy spectrum distributions produced closely match those obtained using a NaI scintillation detector in a lead chamber to detect a Cs-137 source.